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在crowding out effect這個產品中，有2篇Facebook貼文，粉絲數超過4,510的網紅許文昌 Man-cheong，也在其Facebook貼文中提到， 新型冠狀病毒的死亡率目前還很難說，其最高值可達流感的20倍，但如果除去被疫情衝垮的中國湖北省，某些估計值低至0.16％。與流感差不多。對席捲中國乃至其他地方的冠狀病毒疫情暴發感到恐懼，它說明了人們在風險評估中的無意識偏見，以及常常以衝動來引導我們的回應方式——有時會導致嚴重的後果。 「導致人們提高...
　同時也有10000部Youtube影片，追蹤數超過2,910的網紅コバにゃんチャンネル，也在其Youtube影片中提到，...

crowding out effect 在 許文昌 Man-cheong Facebook 的最佳貼文

許文昌 Man-cheong By 許文昌 Man-cheong

2020-02-16 11:28:46 有 11 人按讚
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新型冠狀病毒的死亡率目前還很難說，其最高值可達流感的20倍，但如果除去被疫情衝垮的中國湖北省，某些估計值低至0.16％。與流感差不多。對席捲中國乃至其他地方的冠狀病毒疫情暴發感到恐懼，它說明了人們在風險評估中的無意識偏見，以及常常以衝動來引導我們的回應方式——有時會導致嚴重的後果。

「導致人們提高風險感知的按鈕，這一次全部觸擊到了。我們聽到的消息是死亡人數，而不是98％左右的人正在從中康復，並且可能只患了輕症。」這種趨勢也可以走向另一個極端，除了不必要的擔憂外也會導致不必要的自大。其中一個涉及新穎性：我們習慣於將精力集中在新的威脅上，尋找任何引發擔憂的原因。

「我們面前的信息的普遍性和情感強度，會左右我們對事件發生頻率的判斷。」在極端情況下，這可能導致「擠出效應」(crowding-out effect)，因為我們的情緒衝動壓倒了我們的認知能力。冠狀病毒觸擊到了這些誘發因素，力度通常很強。其中一個是恐懼。另一個觸發因素是人們尚未完全了解病毒的威脅。

令人感到失控的威脅，會引發類似的反應，導致人們尋求重新實施控制，例如囤積物資。我們自願承擔的風險或至少感到自願的風險，通常被認為是低於實際風險的。有無數合理的原因使恐怖主義比交通死亡更能引起人們的強烈反響。同樣，快速傳播且人們知之甚少的病毒暴發相對於熟悉的流感也是如此。

參考人們對1979年賓夕法尼亞州三英里島核電站部分熔毀的反應。它導致公眾要求從核電轉向化石燃料，而後者被認為單單是對空氣質量的影響就導致了每年超過數千人過早死亡。斯洛維奇說，我們的頭腦要不就是傾向於將概率「基本上舍入為零」，繼而反應不夠，要不就是專注於最糟糕的結果，「於是反應過度」。

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crowding out effect 在 Pang Chi Ming Facebook 的精選貼文

Pang Chi Ming By Pang Chi Ming

2020-01-28 00:28:55 有 25 人按讚
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陳雲：政府不封關而給予確診武漢肺炎的外地人免費醫療，只會吸引大陸人過關來港就醫。給予確診者免費就醫是合理的，但不封關的話，這個政策有以下弊端：
一、Attraction effect. 吸引大陸人來港就醫。由於武漢肺炎的高燒不一定明顯，通過體溫測試而來港是容易的，變成逼爆想香港醫院。
二、Crowding out effect. 增加醫院感染，令本地人不敢去公立醫院，產生排擠效應（crowding out），增加其他疾病的死亡率。如果轉去私人診所或醫院求醫，也會逼爆。
三、Overburdening. 武漢肺炎這類並無特效藥及只能用長期舒緩性質的治療，會佔據香港病床，令香港醫療開支沉重。
毫無疑問，這是禍害香港的政策。
（按：我建議的封關是比較溫和的，是禁止自由行之類的大陸客，商務、公務及探親仍可檢疫之後入境。）
附加未經證實的消息：來自連登討論區的消息傳出，//（國家）衛健委認為香港目前依然擁有中國境內最完善的醫療制度，以及在03年SARS疫情中累積的豐富傳染病處理經驗。建議可利用香港，疏導一部份國內患者前往香港接受隔離治療，以協助內地控制肺炎患者的流動降低傳播風險。否則以目前大陸的情況，大量遊離患者將在得不到隔離照顧的情況下，四處遊走加劇疫情傳播。
林鄭在接獲中央政府要求後，隨即向行會成員及下轄管治班子聲明將拒絕任何封關的可能性，並於27日透過衛生署正式公佈：「內地肺炎患者將於香港獲得免費醫療」的措施，以配合中央疏導病患至香港加以控制隔離的疫管措施。若消息屬實，香港或將成為這次肺炎疫情中最無辜的犧牲者。//

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crowding out effect 在 コバにゃんチャンネル Youtube 的精選貼文

コバにゃんチャンネル By コバにゃんチャンネル

2021-10-01 13:19:08 有 9 人看過 有 1 人喜歡
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コバにゃんチャンネル

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コバにゃん☆です?
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crowding out effect 在 大象中醫 Youtube 的精選貼文

大象中醫 By 大象中醫

2021-10-01 13:10:45 有 0 人看過 有 0 人喜歡
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大象中醫

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長照是一個劇變的旋轉舞台 百年難得一見 沒有準備的人 被旋轉舞台甩出去 不是坐下就是躺下 而大象中醫是太極的推手 推動著旋轉舞台 讓 所有爬不起來的人 背後有一股推手力量 支撐再站起來
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crowding out effect 在 大象中醫 Youtube 的最佳解答

大象中醫 By 大象中醫

2021-10-01 13:09:56 有 0 人看過 有 0 人喜歡
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大象中醫

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長照是一個劇變的旋轉舞台 百年難得一見 沒有準備的人 被旋轉舞台甩出去 不是坐下就是躺下 而大象中醫是太極的推手 推動著旋轉舞台 讓 所有爬不起來的人 背後有一股推手力量 支撐再站起來
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crowding out effect 在 Crowding Out Effect Definition (Economic Theory) - Investopedia 的相關結果

The crowding out effect is an economic theory arguing that rising public sector spending drives down or even eliminates private sector spending. ... <看更多>

crowding out effect 在 排擠效果- 維基百科，自由的百科全書 的相關結果

排擠效果（英語：Crowding Out Effect），又名擠出效果，或者具體地說是政府擴張性財政政策的排擠效果。 社會財富的總量是一定的，政府這邊占用的資金過多，會使私人 ... ... <看更多>

crowding out effect 在 Definition of 'Crowding Out Effect' - The Economic Times 的相關結果

Increased interest rates affect private investment decisions. A high magnitude of the crowding out effect may even lead to lesser income in the economy. With ... ... <看更多>

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#1. Crowding Out Effect Definition (Economic Theory) - Investopedia

The crowding out effect is an economic theory arguing that rising public sector spending drives down or even eliminates private sector spending.

#2. 排擠效果- 維基百科，自由的百科全書

排擠效果（英語：Crowding Out Effect），又名擠出效果，或者具體地說是政府擴張性財政政策的排擠效果。 社會財富的總量是一定的，政府這邊占用的資金過多，會使私人 ...

#3. Definition of 'Crowding Out Effect' - The Economic Times

Increased interest rates affect private investment decisions. A high magnitude of the crowding out effect may even lead to lesser income in the economy. With ...

#4. Lesson summary: crowding out (article) | Khan Academy

When governments borrow, they compete with everybody else in the economy who wants to borrow the limited amount of savings available. As a result of this ...

#5. 擠出效應

擠出效應（crowding out effect），或者具體地說是政府擴張性財政政策的擠出效應。 社會財富的總量是一定的，政府這邊佔用的資金過多，又會使私人部門可佔用資金減少， ...

#6. Crowding Out Effect - Explained - The Business Professor, LLC

The crowding-out effect refers to an economic theory that states that the rising interest rates decrease the initial private total investment ...

#7. Fiscal Policy, Investment, and Crowding Out | Macroeconomics

However, the long run effects, emphasized by neoclassical economists, are more serious. Recall that economic growth is caused by investment in physical capital.

#8. 排擠效果 - 解釋頁

排擠效果crowding-out effect。 在經濟學原理上，當政府施實擴張性財政政策（IS曲線右移）時，造成市場利率上升，反而使民間投資減少的的情況。但若當IS曲線為垂直線， ...

#9. What is the Crowding-Out Effect? - Robinhood Learn

The crowding-out effect is an economic theory that argues that rising public sector spending drives down private sector spending.

#10. Crowding Out - Economics Help

This is the term used to describe how government borrowing can cause higher interest rates. If the government needs to sell more securities, it ...

#11. Crowding out vs. crowding in effects in transitional countries

If the public expenditure has the positive influence on private expenditure (personal expenditure and private investments), it is the case of crowding in effect ...

#12. What's crowding out effect in Economics - The Hindu

What's crowding out effect in Economics ... This refers to a phenomenon where increased borrowing by the government to meet its spending needs ...

#13. Financing decisions and the 'crowding out' effect - Science ...

The finding of a 'crowding out' effect from the issue of government debt is not due to a lack of rationality. Previous article in issue; Next article ...

#14. INVESTIGATING THE CROWDING OUT EFFECT OF ...

This study investigates the crowding out effect of government expenditure on private invest- ment in Nigeria using annual data spanning from 1981-2015.

#15. Crowding-Out or Crowding-In: Government Health Investment ...

This paper explores the relationship of government health investment and household consumption by applying a panel fixed effects model and ...

#16. Crowding-out (or -in) effect in transition economies - Emerald ...

crowding -out (or -in) effect of public spending on private investment in the transition economy of Kyrgyzstan. Design/methodology/approach – The empirical ...

#17. Crowding Out or Crowding In? Economic ... - jstor

Once the huge deficits of 1975 and 1976 failed to elicit a comparable bulge in monetary growth, however, attention turned to the effects of deficits financed ...

#18. Chapter VI BUDGET DEFICITS AND CROWDING-OUT - OECD

crowding -out effects which have received particular attention in the economic literature and the political debate. While the possibilities for crowding-out ...

#19. Crowding Out and Its Critics - UT Martin

OES Government spending displace a near equal amount of private spending? This notion, popularly known as the “crowding-out” effect of Government.

#20. crowding out - MIT Economics

A first line of argument questions whether fiscal policy has any effect at all on spending. Changes in the pattern of taxation which keep the pattern of.

#21. Crowding Out or Crowding In? Economic Consequences of ...

It is primarily the effect associated with financing the government deficit, especially the presumed consequences for private investment spending, that has ...

#22. Crowding Out and Crowding in within Keynesian Framework ...

cyclical effectiveness of fiscal policy with special concentration on crowding out and crowding in effects. Methodologically the analysis is done within ...

#23. Are Government-Linked Corporations Crowding out Private ...

This paper presents evidence of the negative impact government-linked corporations have on private investment in Malaysia due to their dominance over ...

#24. crowding out effect - 排擠效果 - 國家教育研究院雙語詞彙

出處/學術領域, 中文詞彙, 英文詞彙. 學術名詞 經濟學, 排擠效果, Crowding-out effect. 學術名詞 統計學名詞, 排擠效果, crowding out effect. 學術名詞 行政學名詞

#25. Crowding Out Effects of Government Spending' - TARA (tcd.ie)

How does opening the economy to capital mobility affect crowding out in ... and the crowding out effect on the traded sector is diminished; the extent to.

#26. Crowding-Out Effect: Evidence from OECD Countries - IDEAS ...

The concept of the crowding-out effect, which is used to describe how an expansionary fiscal policy would reduce private investments, has become one of the ...

#27. The "Crowding Out" Effect of Federal Government Outlay ...

This note has addressed the empirical issue of crowding out by examining the proportion of GDP devoted to private investment in new physical capital in part ...

#28. Crowding Out Effect of Public Borrowing: The Case of Egypt

Keywords: Government Borrowing, Private Credit, Domestic Banking Sector,. Crowding Out, Private Investment, Lazy Banks. 1. Assistant Professor, Faculty of ...

#29. The 'crowding out' risk to the economy | Financial Times

In this environment, the prospect of governments “crowding out” other borrowers by competing for funding, pushing interest rates higher and ...

#30. Crowding Out and Government Spending

Thus, budget deficits "crowd out" private spending since the private sector ... The "crowding out effect" reduces economic growth because it causes capital ...

#31. What is Crowding-Out | IGI Global

1. With contrast to crowding-in, in the crowding-out effect, government spending increases the interest rates for tax rates, at this point private sector firms ...

#32. Crowding Out in Economics: Definition & Effects - Study.com

Crowding out is a situation where personal consumption of goods and services and investments by business are reduced because of increases in ...

#33. creditor discrimination and crowding-out effects - Banco de ...

The model has two key ingredients: creditor discrimination and crowding-out effects. Creditor discrimination arises because, in turbulent times, sovereign debt ...

#34. Crowding out theory - effects of expansion of public sector

This drives up interest rates, which causes a contraction in the demand by the private sector for investment goods (capital) as well as reducing the demand for ...

#35. Definition of the Crowding Out Effect | Higher Rock Education

The crowding out effect describes the negative impact government borrowing may have on the economy. Government borrowing siphons financial resources from ...

#36. Crowding Out | Topics | Economics | tutor2u

The crowding out view is that a rapid growth of government spending leads to a transfer of scarce productive resources from the private sector to the public ...

#37. Analysis on the Crowding-Out Effect of Tourism and Regional ...

After the reform of Chinas tax system, in the case of an established local fiscal revenue, due to the differences in local infrastructure, under the influence ...

#38. crowding-out effect 相關報導- Yahoo奇摩新聞

打開APP. #crowding-out effect. 0人追蹤. 追蹤. 很抱歉，目前沒有相關文章。 留言. yahoo logo. - Yahoo奇摩新聞-

#39. The Crowding-Out Effect | Ifioque.com

The crowding-out effect is the offset in aggregate demand that results when expansionary fiscal policy raises the interest rate and thereby reduces investment ...

#40. What is the crowding out effect and what does it mean for how ...

the crowding out effect refers to the possible effect that a government deficit-financed fiscal policy may have on real interest faced by the private sector ...

#41. Opinion | Don't be deterred by the 'crowding out' effect of the fisc

The so-called “crowding out" effect refers to how increased government spending, for which it must borrow more money, tends to reduce ...

#42. Macroeconomic rates of return of public and private investment

while the crowding-in effect of private investment on public investment is more ... capital, leading to a crowding-out effect on private investment.

#43. U.S. Government Budget Deficits and the Crowding-Out Effect

Poulsen, Robert L., Jr. Metadata. Show full item record. Abstract. The major problem studied in this paper is the crowding-out effect.

#44. foreign direct investment, productivity and crowding-out

Vietnam; and whether the presence of firms with foreign capital has a crowding-out effect on domestically-owned firms. We utilize a rich dataset compiled by ...

#45. 排擠效果，擠出效果,crowding out effect,高點研究所

詞條. crowding out effect. 中文. 排擠效果，擠出效果. 解釋. 狹義的排擠效應，定義為政府採取擴張性財政政策，多的政府消費必定排擠掉民間消費與投資，均衡下總合產 ...

#46. Crowding in or crowding out? How local government debt ...

The pressure upon local governments to redeem their debt could affect government fiscal ability. It could consequently affect their fiscal ...

#47. Crowding Out Effect of Public Borrowing: A Case of Pakistan

The issue of crowding out or crowding in effect of public borrowing on private investment needs considerable attention.

#48. the crowding out effect in a developing country's labour market

What are the effects of bloated public sector labour markets on private employment? Does excessive public sector employment crowd out private sector employment?

#49. Evolution of altruistic motive and crowding-out effect in Turkey

This paper aims to contribute to the growing literature on crowding out/in effects of public transfers in Turkey. We estimate the effects of ...

#50. In the Long Run, We're All Crowded Out | Mercatus Center

Whether the stimuluative or crowding-out effect of government spending dominates is a source of debate amongst economists.

#51. crowding out effect | English to Spanish | Economics - ProZ.com

Translation help and terminology resource for the English to Spanish term, crowding out effect on the ProZ.com KudoZ™ translation network.

#52. What Is Crowding Out in Economics? - Online Schools Report

Principally, the crowding out theory suggests that an increase in public sector spending will reduce investment and other forms of spending in the private ...

#53. A CROWDING-OUT EFFECT IN MEXICO - SciELO Chile

FOREIGN INVESTMENT AND WAGES: A CROWDING-OUT EFFECT IN MEXICO. ENRIQUE L. KATO-VIDAL. * Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro and the Sistema Nacional de ...

#54. Crowding Out Effect - Intelligent Economist

The crowding out effect is a prominent economic theory stating that increasing public sector spending has the effect of decreasing spending ...

#55. THE CROWDING-OUT EFFECT - Taylor & Francis Online

Issue competition is present when a high level of attention to one issue “crowds out” attention to other issues in the same news outlet in a ...

#56. Crowding Out in the UK within an Optimal Control Framework

Butkiewicz, J. L. (1979) Outside wealth, the demand for money and the crowding out effect, Journal of Monetary Economics, (04).CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

#57. ON THE CROWDING-OUT EFFECTS OF GOVERNMENT ...

WHY LESS CAN BE MORE: ON THE CROWDING-OUT. EFFECTS OF GOVERNMENT FINANCING1. Viral V. Acharya. Deputy Governor, Reserve Bank of India (RBI).

#58. The Impact of Government Spending on the Private Sector

In particular, while we find statistically significant crowding-out effects in Africa, Europe and South. America, government spending does not seem to have ( ...

#59. Crowding Out - The Decision Lab

Crowding out suggests that when we are promised a reward for completing an activity, we lose an intrinsic desire to perform that task. As a result, we are less ...

#60. You Are Suffocating Me! Firm-Level Evidence on Crowding ...

The economic significance of this crowding-out effect on private enterprises is greater in manufacturing and in those sectors in which SOEs ...

#61. The crowding out effect of public (internal) debt on private ...

The crowding out effect of public (internal) debt on private sector credit. Mozambique Experience. This paper, using monthly data between 1998 (December) ...

#62. Learn About Crowding Out Effect | Chegg.com

The crowding out effect is a theory that states that an increase in government spending can lead to a decline in private spending.

#63. Crowding out Effect of Foreign Aid in Selected Developing ...

52/ Crowding out Effect of Foreign Aid in Selected Developing Countries… savings and limited access to private capital flows. The amount of ODA.

#64. Crowding Out Fiscal Stimulus | springerprofessional.de

This chapter undertakes 95 tests of different models to determine if the government deficit has a significant, measurable crowd out effect on private ...

#65. The Crowding-Out Effect of Fiscal Policy inCanada - uO ...

Title: The Crowding-Out Effect of Fiscal Policy inCanada: An Empirical Examination. Authors: Bakhtiari, Sadegh. Date: 1986.

#66. Wrecked by the Crowding-Out Effect (Heavy Metal Edition)

Check out Wrecked by the Crowding-Out Effect (Heavy Metal Edition) by Social Studs on Amazon Music. Stream ad-free or purchase CD's and MP3s now on ...

#67. Crowding-out effect of tobacco expenditure in Vietnam

Generally, the crowding-out effect of tobacco spending in Vietnamese households is modest because of the small share of tobacco in the total household ...

#68. All you need to know about crowding out effect - Cafemutual ...

Some macroeconomic theories suggest that If the economy is operating at below capacity, government spending can actually help the economy by ...

#69. Overcoming the Crowding-Out Effect of Monetary Incentive on ...

Monetary incentives are often used to motivate individuals' pro-social behavior. However, incentives are known to result in the crowding-out effect, which ...

#70. crowding-out effect | Contemplating Co-ops - Blogs (words ...

With the right balance, however, extrinsic motivations can significantly enhance performance — the crowding-in effect.

#71. Crowding Out and Crowding In of Intrinsic Preferences

It demonstrates that economic theory and policy are influenced by such crowding effects. More care is needed to apply incentives in firms, or in the public ...

#72. "The Crowding Out Effect of Out-of-Pocket Medication ...

We assess how BPD medication expenditures are associated with crowding out of other household commodities in Pakistan. MethodsWe analyze self-reported ...

#73. Analysis on the Crowding-Out Effect of Tourism - ProQuest

After the reform of Chinas tax system, in the case of an established local fiscal revenue, due to the differences in local infrastructure, ...

#74. Crowding Out and Crowding In of Private Donations and ...

First, the crowding out effect could also occur in the opposite ... I find strong evidence that government grants crowd in private donations ...

#75. Crowding-Out Effect (With Diagram) - Economics Discussion

Thus, the phenomenon, whereby increased government expenditure may lead to a squeezing of private investment expenditure, is referred to as the crowding-out ...

#76. Crowding-out Effect or Institutions? The Resource Curse ...

The crowding-out effect suggests that resource abundance crowds out certain growth-friendly factors such as investment, human capital,.

#77. Crowding-Out Effect: Evidence from OECD Countries

This study aims to investigate whether or not the crowding-out effect is applicable in OECD countries. For this purpose, Panel Data Analysis was ...

#78. Neither crowding in nor out: Public direct investment ...

Instead, both neoclassical microeconomics and evolutionary economics suggest public direct investment to have a positive effect due to either externalities or ...

#79. Policy consequences of pay-for-performance and crowding-out

The crowding effect can under specific conditions bolster extrinsic motivation. This is the case if the outside intervention acknowledges and praises the work ...

#80. A 'crowding out' theory of the Eurozone crisis - VoxEU

Second, public debt trades in secondary markets so debt holdings shift from foreign to ... Creditor discrimination and crowding-out effects.

#81. Fiscal Policy: Economic Effects - FAS Project on Government ...

These side effects from expansionary fiscal policy tend to partly offset its stimulative effects. ... Crowding Out Government Spending .

#82. the crowding-out effect of governmental transfers on private ...

THE CROWDING-OUT EFFECT OF GOVERNMENTAL. TRANSFERS ON PRIVATE CHARITABLE CONTRIBUTIONS: CROSS-SECTION EVIDENCE***. BURTON A. ABRAMS* AND MARK D. SCHMITZ**.

#83. Crowding out and opening up | Business Standard News

In effect, this would enable funds from larger passive investors to finance Indian government deficits. The idea is that this would both ease ...

#84. in) effects of subsidy schemes on individual donations

We find that when the rebate subsidy scheme is implemented, it does not result in crowding-out or crowding-in effects on individual net donations. However, when ...

#85. THE CROWDING-OUT EFFECT OF FISCAL POLICY ON ...

The study investigated the effect of fiscal policy on crowding out capital inflows in Nigeria using annual data between 1970 and 2011 by using the foreign ...

#86. The crowding-out effect of elderly support expenditure on ...

Third, this study provides new micro-evidence of the crowding-out effect of the aging population on household consumption. Our study has found ...

#87. Crowding-Out Effect Of Public Investment On Private Investment

Our preliminary results show that while it can be true that there is a crowding out effect on private investment from public investments in ...

#88. Fiscal Spending and Crowding out Effect - Malaysian Journal ...

Furthermore, the effect of budget deficit on private investment in developed countries is negative (crowd out effect), while this effect is positive in ...

#89. “Crowding Out” Not an Excuse to Forgo Tax Reform - Tax ...

A model that assumes a large crowding out effect from the deficit will forecast little economic growth from a tax cut, and little additional ...

#90. The Crowding-out Effect of Mandatory Labour Market Pension ...

This paper aims to estimate the crowding-out effect of the Danish mandatory labour market pension reforms begun in 1993 on the level of ...

#91. The Crowding Out Effect of Tobacco Spending in Pakistan

The report finds strong evidence of the crowding out effect in Pakistan, which shows that reducing the demand for tobacco is necessary to improve the economic ...

#92. The Crowding-Out Effect of Foreign Capital - Economic and ...

This paper seeks to explain why such crowding-out might. ... and on the effects of the inflow on investment in and foreign currency reserves ...

#93. [PDF] Investigating the Crowding Out Effect of Government ...

Abstract This study investigates the crowding out effect of government expenditure on private investment in Nigeria using annual data ...

#94. What is the Crowding out Effect? - Wise Geek

The underlying concept of the crowding out effect is that when a government engages in increased borrowing, it naturally has an impact on the interest rates ...

#95. 何謂擠出效應？ - 香港經濟日報- 知識庫- 金融財經- D180910

擠出效應（Crowding Out Effect）意指，政府一味增加公共開支不一定能帶動經濟，有時甚至會適得其反，並留下一身沉重債務。 □知多啲. 擠出效應指政府增加 ...

#96. Crowding-Out Effect: Evidence from ... - Istanbul University Press

The concept of the crowding-out effect, which is used to describe how an expansionary fiscal policy would reduce private investments, has become one of the ...

#97. Intrinsic motivation, health outcomes and the crowding out ...

Discussion number 18/17. Intrinsic motivation, health outcomes and the crowding out effect of temporary extrinsic incentives: A lab-in-the-field experiment.